Research, Referencing, and Citations

What we expect of pupils aged 14–16

Strong entries do not simply assert that something is true; they make it possible for the reader to check the underlying evidence. For pupils aged 14–16, this means showing clearly and consistently where key facts, statistics, definitions, and quotations come from. When a claim matters to the argument, the source should be visible.

We encourage pupils to build their essays on reputable material wherever possible: information from universities, recognised science and medical bodies, peer-reviewed research, and high-quality science journalism. Part of good scientific writing at this level is learning to recognise the difference between primary sources (such as an original research paper, dataset, or official technical report) and secondary sources (such as a news article or explainer summarising research). Pupils do not need to become specialists, but they should be able to say briefly why a source is trustworthy—for example, because it is peer-reviewed, produced by a recognised institution, or corroborated by multiple reliable outlets.

In practical terms, the easiest approach is to choose one referencing style and use it consistently throughout. Harvard or APA are both acceptable. Pupils should add in-text citations (author, year) or a number ([1]) at the point they use a sourced idea or fact, and then include a reference list at the end of the essay so the reader can locate each source.

 For websites, this typically means recording the author or organisation, the page title, the year (if available), the site name, and the date accessed. If your school already teaches a particular format, pupils should follow that house style; consistency and traceability matter more than any single preferred system. Further teacher-friendly and pupil-usable guidance is included in the resource library below, including a concise Harvard referencing guide from The Open University.